Single-shot X-ray phase-contrast imaging is used to take high-resolution images of laser-driven strong shock waves. Employing a two-grating Talbot interferometer, we successfully acquire standard absorption, differential phase-contrast, and dark-field images of the shocked target. Good agreement is demonstrated between experimental data and the results of two-dimensional radiation hydrodynamics simulations of the laser-plasma interaction. The main sources of image noise are identified through a thorough assessment of the interferometer’s performance. The acquired images demonstrate that grating-based phase-contrast imaging is a powerful diagnostic tool for high-energy-density science. In addition, we make a novel attempt at using the dark-field image as a signal modality of Talbot interferometry to identify the microstructure of a foam target.